Gender Differences in Trends in Incidence and Mortality of Acute Myocardial Infarction in the Small Island Developing State of Barbados.

Objective To determine trends, identify predictors of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) incidence and mortality, and explore performance metrics for AMI care in Barbados. Methods Data on all cases diagnosed with AMI were collected by the Barbados National Registry for Non-Communicable Diseases (BNR) from the island's only tertiary hospital, the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, and the National Vital Registration Department. Participants who survived hospital admission were then followed up at 28 days and one year post event via telephone survey and retrieval of death certificates. Age-standardized incidence and mortality rates were calculated. Determinants of mortality at 28 days were examined in multivariable logistic regression models. Median and interquartile ranges (IQR) were calculated for performance metrics (e.g., time from pain onset to reperfusion). Results In a 10-year period between 2010 and 2019, 4,065 cases of myocardial infarction were recorded. The median age of the sample was 73 years (IQR: 61,83), and approximately half (47%) were female. Over a 10-year period, standardized incidence increased in women on average yearly by three per 100,000 (95% CI: 1 to 6; p=0.02), while in men, the average increase per year was six per 100,000 (95% CI: 4 to 8; p<0.001). There was no increase in 28-day mortality in women; mortality in men increased each year by 2.5 per 100,000 (95% CI: 0.4 to 4.5; p=0.02). The time from arrival at the hospital to the ECG was 44 minutes IQR (20,113). Conclusion AMI incidence and mortality are increasing in Barbados, and men have a higher velocity of mortality rate increase than women, which contradicts global data.

Neighbourhood Walkability and Its Influence on Physical Activity and Cardiometabolic Disease: A Cross-Sectional Study in a Caribbean Small Island Developing State.

Introduction Cities and neighborhoods may provide opportunities for population-level environmental interventions to reduce physical inactivity and cardiometabolic risk. In this study, we describe the association between neighborhood walkability, physical activity (PA), and cardiometabolic outcomes, by linking data from a nationally representative survey of adults (25 years and older) collected in 2012-2013 with spatial data on built environment features in Barbados. Methods We estimated a walkability index for 45 neighborhoods using objectively measured built environment features (residential density, street connectivity, and land use mix). We used the Recent Physical Activity Questionnaire to capture time spent in outdoor walking, active commuting, moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA), and total PA. Our primary cardiometabolic outcome was a predicted 10-year cardiovascular risk (CVD) score, estimated using the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association pooled cohort equation. Our secondary cardiometabolic outcomes were hypertension and diabetes. We explored the effect of neighborhood walkability on PA and cardiometabolic outcomes using several multivariable regression models (tobit and linear and logistic multi-level mixed effects), with the model choice depending on the structure of the outcome.  Results The average time spent walking weekly for any purpose among participants was 75 minutes/week, time spent on active commuting was 15 minutes/week, and MVPA was 221 minutes/week. We estimated that the average 10-year CVD risk in the study population was 11.7% (95%CI 10.9-12.5). Our confounder-adjusted analyses showed positive linear relationships between neighborhood walkability and each PA outcome (p<0.05 in all cases), and a negative relationship between walkability and predicted 10-year CVD risk (p<0.001). Conclusion In our setting, adults residing in higher walkability neighborhoods spent more time engaged in PA, had a lower predicted 10-year CVD risk, and were less likely to have diabetes. Urban planners may consider shorter-term interventions, such as those on a microscale, which may provide additional ways to increase activity in a mostly fixed macroscale environment.

Understanding the relationship between built environment features and physical activity in the Caribbean: A scoping review.

Background: Transforming the urban infrastructure to become safe, inclusive and sustainable remains a challenge in most developing settings. The Caribbean has high burdens of physical inactivity and non-communicable diseases. Therefore, understanding the role of the built environment (BE) in modifying individual activity is important for informing the design of community interventions to improve levels of physical activity (PA). Anecdotally, there is limited evidence on the BE in the Caribbean, however evidence from other Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and from Latin America (LA) may offer useful information given their similar urbanization profiles and shared geo-collaborative histories. Objective: Our review identifies and characterizes individual features of the BE and examines their relationships with PA outcomes. Methods: We systematically searched a range of multi-discipline research databases, including studies from SIDS and LA that objectively measured BE features as an exposure and PA as an outcome between 2010 and 2021. Grey literature was not considered for this review. We characterized BE measures into 9 neighbourhood design domains using the Walkability for Health framework, and mapped gaps in the published evidence. We performed a narrative summary of BE-PA relationships, focusing on association strength and direction of effect. Results: Fifty-one studies from published scientific literature in Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Chile, and Singapore were included that described 306 BE-PA relationships. The BE was mostly characterized by number of and proximity to spaces for social interaction, green spaces, increasing housing density or street connectivity, and mixed residential and commercial land use. BE-PA relationships, although inconsistent, largely promoted PA. Conclusion: Although the review is suggestive of the benefits of the benefits of BE interventions for promoting active commuting and leisurely PA, translational research is needed to understand whether results can be successfully adapted for SIDS, which often have an urban structure defined by a single urban centre with connections to outlying communities.

COVID-19 and the social distribution of hunger in three Caribbean Small Island Developing States.

Objectives: To determine changes to income and livelihood, food consumption, and hunger due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in three Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Caribbean: Jamaica, St Kitts and Nevis, and St Vincent and the Grenadines. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study conducted in July 2020. Participants were selected using telephone directories and lists of mobile numbers. Data were collected through face-to-face and telephone interviews. Participants rated the impact of COVID-19 on their livelihoods and the Adult Food Security Module was used to assess hunger. To examine how these outcomes varied by sociodemographic group, multivariable logistic regression analysis was used, with odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) reported. Results: The analysis included 880 participants. Of these, 40% (344/871) reported some form of hunger, with 18% (153/871) classed as moderate-to-severe hunger. Almost three quarters of households reported some impact on their livelihood (640/880), with 28% (243/880) classifying this impact as moderate to severe. Women were 60% more likely to report that their livelihoods were moderately to severely affected by COVID-19 (OR 1.59; 95% CI 1.09, 2.31) and 70% more likely to experience moderate-to-severe hunger (OR 1.70; 95% CI 1.37, 2.09). The effects of COVID-19 on livelihood and hunger were greater in those with secondary-school and primary-school education compared with tertiary education. Conclusion: The COVID-19 pandemic is disproportionately affecting the most vulnerable segments of the population. Social protection programmes are a key component of efforts to alleviate the pandemic's consequences; however, equitable access must be ensured.

COVID-19 and the social distribution of hunger in three Caribbean Small Island Developing States

[ABSTRACT]. Objectives. To determine changes to income and livelihood, food consumption, and hunger due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in three Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Caribbean: Jamaica, St Kitts and Nevis, and St Vincent and the Grenadines. Methods. This was a cross-sectional study conducted in July 2020. Participants were selected using telephone directories and lists of mobile numbers. Data were collected through face-to-face and telephone interviews. Participants rated the impact of COVID-19 on their livelihoods and the Adult Food Security Module was used to assess hunger. To examine how these outcomes varied by sociodemographic group, multivariable logistic regression analysis was used, with odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) reported. Results. The analysis included 880 participants. Of these, 40% (344/871) reported some form of hunger, with 18% (153/871) classed as moderate-to-severe hunger. Almost three quarters of households reported some impact on their livelihood (640/880), with 28% (243/880) classifying this impact as moderate to severe. Women were 60% more likely to report that their livelihoods were moderately to severely affected by COVID-19 (OR 1.59; 95% CI 1.09, 2.31) and 70% more likely to experience moderate-to-severe hunger (OR 1.70; 95% CI 1.37, 2.09). The effects of COVID-19 on livelihood and hunger were greater in those with secondary-school and primary-school education compared with tertiary education. Conclusion. The COVID-19 pandemic is disproportionately affecting the most vulnerable segments of the population. Social protection programmes are a key component of efforts to alleviate the pandemic’s consequences; however, equitable access must be ensured.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivos. Determinar qué cambios ha ocasionado la enfermedad por el coronavirus del 2019 (COVID-19) en los ingresos y los medios de subsistencia, el consumo de alimentos y el hambre en tres pequeños Estados insulares en desarrollo del Caribe: Jamaica, Saint Kitts y Nevis, y San Vicente y las Granadinas. Métodos. En este estudio transversal realizado en julio del 2020, para seleccionar a los participantes se utilizaron guías telefónicas y listas de números de teléfono celular. Los datos se recopilaron mediante entrevistas en persona y por teléfono. Los participantes calificaron cuál había sido la repercusión de la COVID-19 en sus medios de subsistencia; el hambre se evaluó mediante la escala de la encuesta sobre seguridad alimentaria en los hogares “Adult Food Security Module”. Para estudiar cómo variaban los resultados según el grupo sociodemográfico, se realizó un análisis de regresión logística multivariable, con razones de probabilidades (odds ratios u OR) e intervalos de confianza de 95% (IC). Resultados. El análisis incluyó a 880 participantes. De estos, 40% (344/871) declararon haber pasado algún grado de hambre y 18% (153/871) lo calificaron de moderado a grave. Casi tres cuartos de los hogares informaron que sus medios de subsistencia habían tenido algún tipo de repercusión (640/880) y 28% (243/880) la calificaron de moderada a grave. Las mujeres tenían un 60% más de probabilidades de valorar la repercusión de la COVID-19 en sus medios de subsistencia de moderada a grave (OR 1,59; IC de 95% 1,09, 2,31) y un 70% más de probabilidades de haber tenido un nivel de hambre de moderado a grave (OR 1,70; IC de 95% 1,37, 2,09). Los efectos de la COVID-19 sobre los medios de subsistencia y el hambre fueron mayores en aquellos participantes con educación primaria y secundaria en comparación con aquellos con educación terciaria. Conclusión. La pandemia de COVID-19 está afectando desproporcionadamente a los segmentos más vulnerables de la población. Los programas de protección social son un componente clave de las iniciativas dirigidas a paliar las consecuencias de la pandemia; sin embargo, debe garantizarse que el acceso a estos programas es equitativo.

[RESUMO]. Objetivos. Determinar mudanças na renda e na subsistência, no consumo de alimentos e na fome devido à doença causada pelo coronavírus 2019 (COVID-19) em três pequenos Estados insulares em desenvolvimento (SIDS, na sigla em inglês) no Caribe: Jamaica, São Cristóvão e Névis, e São Vicente e Granadinas. Métodos. Este foi um estudo transversal realizado em julho de 2020. Os participantes foram selecionados por meio da utilização de listas telefônicas e números de celular. Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevistas presenciais e telefônicas. Os participantes avaliaram o impacto da COVID-19 em seus meios de subsistência, e o módulo de segurança alimentar para adultos foi utilizado para avaliar a fome. Para examinar como esses resultados variavam por grupo sociodemográfico, foi utilizada a análise de regressão logística multivariável, com razões de chances (RC) e intervalos de confiança (IC) relatados de 95%. Resultados. A análise incluiu 880 participantes. Entre eles, 40% (344/871) relataram alguma forma de fome, com 18% (153/871) classificados como fome moderada a grave. Quase três quartos das famílias relataram algum impacto em sua subsistência (640/880), com 28% (243/880) classificando esse impacto como moderado a grave. As mulheres tiveram 60% mais probabilidade de relatar que seus meios de subsistência foram afetados moderada a gravemente pela COVID-19 (RC 1,59; IC 95% 1,09, 2,31) e 70% mais probabilidade de passar fome de moderada a grave (RC 1,70; IC 95% 1,37, 2,09). Os efeitos da COVID-19 sobre a subsistência e a fome foram maiores nas pessoas com ensino fundamental e médio, em comparação com o ensino superior. Conclusão. A pandemia de COVID-19 está afetando de forma desproporcional os segmentos mais vulneráveis da população. Programas de proteção social são um componente essencial dos esforços para aliviar as consequências da pandemia; entretanto, o acesso equitativo deve ser garantido.

Peripheral Arterial Disease Prevalence in a Population-Based Sample of People with Diabetes on the Caribbean Island of Barbados.

Background: Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is a risk factor for amputation and systemic atherosclerotic disease. Barbados has a high diabetes prevalence, and 89% of diabetes-related hospital admissions are for foot problems. Foot examination is infrequent in Barbados primary care. The prevalence and potential risk factors for PAD in people with diabetes in Barbados were studied. Methods: Multistage probability sampling was used to select a representative population sample of people ≥25 years of age with known diabetes or fasting blood glucose ≥7 mmol/L or HbA1c ≥6.5%. We administered the Edinburgh claudication questionnaire and assessed the ankle brachial pressure index (ABI) and Doppler waveform in both dorsalis pedis and posterior tibial arteries. Participants were classified into categories based on ABI as follows: PAD ≤0.90 in any leg; borderline 0.91 to 0.99 in one leg and the other not ≤0.90 or >0.4; normal 1.00 to 1.40 in both legs; and non-compressible >1.40 in one leg and the other not ≤0.9. Waveforms crossing the zero-flow baseline were categorised as normal. Multivariable logistic regression assessed the associations of potential risk factors with PAD. Results: Of 236 participants (74% response rate, 33% male, median age 58.6 years), 51% had previously diagnosed diabetes. Of nine people with symptoms of definite or atypical claudication, four had PAD and one had non-compressible arteries. ABI prevalence (95% CI) was PAD 18.6% (13.8, 24.6), borderline 21.9% (16.6, 28.4), normal 55.5% (49.4, 61.5) and non-compressible 3.9% (1.6, 9.3). Increasing age and female gender were independently associated with PAD. Over 80% of normal legs (ABI 1.00 to 1.40) had normal posterior tibial and dorsalis pedis waveforms, while only 23% legs with PAD (ABI ≤0.90) had normal waveforms in both arteries (Kappa = 0.43). Conclusion: Asymptomatic PAD is common in people with diabetes and requires ABI screening to detect it. Female gender is associated with PAD.

Adaptation of a community-based type-2 diabetes mellitus remission intervention during COVID-19: empowering persons living with diabetes to take control.

BACKGROUND: The Barbados Diabetes Remission Study-2 reported that a low-calorie diet for weight loss and diabetes remission implemented within the community and supported by trained community health advocates was both an acceptable implementation strategy and a clinically effective intervention. This study aimed to examine the adaptability of the face-to-face protocol into an online modality. METHODS: The Iterative Decision-making for Evaluation of Adaptations (IDEA) framework guides researchers in examining the necessity of the adaptation and the preservation of core intervention elements during the adaptation process. Adaptation outcomes were documented using the Framework for Reporting Adaptations and Modifications to Evidence-Based Implementation Strategies (FRAME-IS). Implementation outcome was determined by fidelity to core elements. Intervention effectiveness was determined from the analysis of clinical data. RESULTS: We decided that an adaptation was needed as COVID-19 control measures prohibited in-person interactions. The core elements-i.e. 12-week intervention duration, daily 840-kcal allowance, and weekly monitoring of weight and blood glucose-could be preserved during the adaptation process. Adaptations were made to the following: (1) the context in which data were collected-participants self-measured at home instead of following the original implementation strategy which involved being measured by community health advocates (CHA) at a community site; (2) the context in which data were entered-participants posted their measurements to a mobile application site which was accessible by CHAs. As with the original protocol, CHAs then entered the measurements into an online database; (3) the formulation of the low-calorie diet-participants substituted the liquid formulation for a solid meal plan of equivalent caloric content. There was non-inferiority in fidelity to attendance with the online format (97.5% visit rate), as compared to the face-to-face modality (95% visit rate). One participant deviated from the calorie allowances citing difficulty in estimating non-exact portion sizes and financial difficulty in procuring meals. Weight change ranged from - 14.3 to 0.4 kg over the 12-week period, and all group members achieved induction of diabetes remission as determined by a FBG of < 7mmol/l and an A1C of < 6.5%. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that this adapted online protocol-which includes changes to both the implementation strategy and the evidence-based practice-is clinically effective whilst maintaining fidelity to key elements. Utilization of the IDEA and FRAME-IS adaptation frameworks add scientific rigour to the research. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03536377 . Registered on 24 May 2018.

COVID-19 and the social distribution of hunger in three Caribbean Small Island Developing States / La COVID-19 y la distribución social del hambre en tres pequeños Estados insulares en desarrollo del Caribe / COVID-19 e a distribuição social da fome em três pequenos Estados insulares em desenvolvimento do Caribe

ABSTRACT Objectives. To determine changes to income and livelihood, food consumption, and hunger due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in three Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Caribbean: Jamaica, St Kitts and Nevis, and St Vincent and the Grenadines. Methods. This was a cross-sectional study conducted in July 2020. Participants were selected using telephone directories and lists of mobile numbers. Data were collected through face-to-face and telephone interviews. Participants rated the impact of COVID-19 on their livelihoods and the Adult Food Security Module was used to assess hunger. To examine how these outcomes varied by sociodemographic group, multivariable logistic regression analysis was used, with odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) reported. Results. The analysis included 880 participants. Of these, 40% (344/871) reported some form of hunger, with 18% (153/871) classed as moderate-to-severe hunger. Almost three quarters of households reported some impact on their livelihood (640/880), with 28% (243/880) classifying this impact as moderate to severe. Women were 60% more likely to report that their livelihoods were moderately to severely affected by COVID-19 (OR 1.59; 95% CI 1.09, 2.31) and 70% more likely to experience moderate-to-severe hunger (OR 1.70; 95% CI 1.37, 2.09). The effects of COVID-19 on livelihood and hunger were greater in those with secondary-school and primary-school education compared with tertiary education. Conclusion. The COVID-19 pandemic is disproportionately affecting the most vulnerable segments of the population. Social protection programmes are a key component of efforts to alleviate the pandemic's consequences; however, equitable access must be ensured.

RESUMEN Objetivos. Determinar qué cambios ha ocasionado la enfermedad por el coronavirus del 2019 (COVID-19) en los ingresos y los medios de subsistencia, el consumo de alimentos y el hambre en tres pequeños Estados insulares en desarrollo del Caribe: Jamaica, Saint Kitts y Nevis, y San Vicente y las Granadinas. Métodos. En este estudio transversal realizado en julio del 2020, para seleccionar a los participantes se utilizaron guías telefónicas y listas de números de teléfono celular. Los datos se recopilaron mediante entrevistas en persona y por teléfono. Los participantes calificaron cuál había sido la repercusión de la COVID-19 en sus medios de subsistencia; el hambre se evaluó mediante la escala de la encuesta sobre seguridad alimentaria en los hogares "Adult Food Security Module". Para estudiar cómo variaban los resultados según el grupo sociodemográfico, se realizó un análisis de regresión logística multivariable, con razones de probabilidades (odds ratios u OR) e intervalos de confianza de 95% (IC). Resultados. El análisis incluyó a 880 participantes. De estos, 40% (344/871) declararon haber pasado algún grado de hambre y 18% (153/871) lo calificaron de moderado a grave. Casi tres cuartos de los hogares informaron que sus medios de subsistencia habían tenido algún tipo de repercusión (640/880) y 28% (243/880) la calificaron de moderada a grave. Las mujeres tenían un 60% más de probabilidades de valorar la repercusión de la COVID-19 en sus medios de subsistencia de moderada a grave (OR 1,59; IC de 95% 1,09, 2,31) y un 70% más de probabilidades de haber tenido un nivel de hambre de moderado a grave (OR 1,70; IC de 95% 1,37, 2,09). Los efectos de la COVID-19 sobre los medios de subsistencia y el hambre fueron mayores en aquellos participantes con educación primaria y secundaria en comparación con aquellos con educación terciaria. Conclusión. La pandemia de COVID-19 está afectando desproporcionadamente a los segmentos más vulnerables de la población. Los programas de protección social son un componente clave de las iniciativas dirigidas a paliar las consecuencias de la pandemia; sin embargo, debe garantizarse que el acceso a estos programas es equitativo.

RESUMO Objetivos. Determinar mudanças na renda e na subsistência, no consumo de alimentos e na fome devido à doença causada pelo coronavírus 2019 (COVID-19) em três pequenos Estados insulares em desenvolvimento (SIDS, na sigla em inglês) no Caribe: Jamaica, São Cristóvão e Névis, e São Vicente e Granadinas. Métodos. Este foi um estudo transversal realizado em julho de 2020. Os participantes foram selecionados por meio da utilização de listas telefônicas e números de celular. Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevistas presenciais e telefônicas. Os participantes avaliaram o impacto da COVID-19 em seus meios de subsistência, e o módulo de segurança alimentar para adultos foi utilizado para avaliar a fome. Para examinar como esses resultados variavam por grupo sociodemográfico, foi utilizada a análise de regressão logística multivariável, com razões de chances (RC) e intervalos de confiança (IC) relatados de 95%. Resultados. A análise incluiu 880 participantes. Entre eles, 40% (344/871) relataram alguma forma de fome, com 18% (153/871) classificados como fome moderada a grave. Quase três quartos das famílias relataram algum impacto em sua subsistência (640/880), com 28% (243/880) classificando esse impacto como moderado a grave. As mulheres tiveram 60% mais probabilidade de relatar que seus meios de subsistência foram afetados moderada a gravemente pela COVID-19 (RC 1,59; IC 95% 1,09, 2,31) e 70% mais probabilidade de passar fome de moderada a grave (RC 1,70; IC 95% 1,37, 2,09). Os efeitos da COVID-19 sobre a subsistência e a fome foram maiores nas pessoas com ensino fundamental e médio, em comparação com o ensino superior. Conclusão. A pandemia de COVID-19 está afetando de forma desproporcional os segmentos mais vulneráveis da população. Programas de proteção social são um componente essencial dos esforços para aliviar as consequências da pandemia; entretanto, o acesso equitativo deve ser garantido.

Anthropometric cut-offs to identify hyperglycemia in an Afro-Caribbean population: a cross-sectional population-based study from Barbados.

INTRODUCTION: Body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) cut-offs associated with hyperglycemia may differ by ethnicity. We investigated the optimal BMI and WC cut-offs for identifying hyperglycemia in the predominantly Afro-Caribbean population of Barbados. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study of 865 individuals aged ≥25 years without known diabetes or cardiovascular disease was conducted. Hyperglycemia was defined as fasting plasma glucose ≥5.6 mmol/L or hemoglobin A1c ≥5.7% (39 mmol/mol). The Youden index was used to identify the optimal cut-offs from the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. Further ROC analysis and multivariable log binomial regression were used to compare standard and data-derived cut-offs. RESULTS: The prevalence of hyperglycemia was 58.9% (95% CI 54.7% to 63.0%). In women, optimal BMI and WC cut-offs (27 kg/m2 and 87 cm, respectively) performed similarly to standard cut-offs. In men, sensitivities of the optimal cut-offs of BMI ≥24 kg/m2 (72.0%) and WC ≥86 cm (74.0%) were higher than those for standard BMI and WC obesity cut-offs (30.0% and 25%-46%, respectively), although with lower specificity. Hyperglycemia was 70% higher in men above the data-derived WC cut-off (prevalence ratio 95% CI 1.2 to 2.3). CONCLUSIONS: While BMI and WC cut-offs in Afro-Caribbean women approximate international standards, our findings, consistent with other studies, suggest lowering cut-offs in men may be warranted to improve detection of hyperglycemia. Our findings do, however, require replication in a new data set.

Sodium and potassium excretion in an adult Caribbean population of African descent with a high burden of cardiovascular disease.

BACKGROUND: High sodium diets with inadequate potassium and high sodium-to-potassium ratios are a known determinant of hypertension and cardiovascular disease (CVD). The Caribbean island of Barbados has a high prevalence of hypertension and mortality from CVD. Our objectives were to estimate sodium and potassium excretion, to compare estimated levels with recommended intakes and to identify the main food sources of sodium in Barbadian adults. METHODS: A sub-sample (n = 364; 25-64 years) was randomly selected from the representative population-based Health of the Nation cross-sectional study (n = 1234), in 2012-13. A single 24-h urine sample was collected from each participant, following a strictly applied protocol designed to reject incomplete samples, for the measurement of sodium and potassium excretion (in mg), which were used as proxy estimates of dietary intake. In addition, sensitivity analyses based on estimated completeness of urine collection from urine creatinine values were undertaken. Multiple linear regression was used to examine differences in sodium and potassium excretion, and the sodium-to-potassium ratio, by age, sex and educational level. Two 24-h recalls were used to identify the main dietary sources of sodium. All analyses were weighted for the survey design. RESULTS: Mean sodium excretion was 2656 (2488-2824) mg/day, with 67% (62-73%) exceeding the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended limit of 2000 mg/d. Mean potassium excretion was 1469 (1395-1542) mg/d; < 0.5% met recommended minimum intake levels. Mean sodium-to-potassium ratio was 2.0 (1.9-2.1); not one participant had a ratio that met WHO recommendations. Higher potassium intake and lower sodium-to-potassium ratio were independently associated with age and tertiary education. Sensitivity analyses based on urine creatinine values did not notably alter these findings. CONCLUSIONS: In this first nationally representative study with objective assessment of sodium and potassium excretion in a Caribbean population in over 20 years, levels of sodium intake were high, and potassium intake was low. Younger age and lower educational level were associated with the highest sodium-to-potassium ratios. These findings provide baseline values for planning future policy interventions for non-communicable disease prevention.

Prevalence and phenotype of diabetes and prediabetes using fasting glucose vs HbA1c in a Caribbean population.

BACKGROUND: Both fasting plasma glucose (FPG) and HbA1c are recommended for the diagnosis of diabetes and prediabetes by the American Diabetes Association (ADA), and for diabetes by the World Health Organization. The ADA guidance is influential on clinical practice in many developing countries, including in the Caribbean and Latin America. We aimed to compare the prevalence and characteristics of individuals identified as having diabetes and prediabetes by FPG and HbA1c in a predominantly African ancestry Caribbean population. METHODS: A representative population-based sample of 1234 adults (≥25 years of age) resident in Barbados was recruited. Standard methods with appropriate quality control were used to collect data on height, weight, blood pressure, fasting lipids and history of diagnosed diabetes, and to measure fasting glucose and HbA1c. Those with previously diagnosed diabetes (n = 192) were excluded from the analyses. Diabetes was defined as: FPG ≥7.0 mmol/L or HbA1c ≥6.5%; prediabetes as: FPG ≥5.6 to <7mmol/L or HbA1c ≥5.7 to <6.5%. RESULTS: Complete data were available on 939 participants without previously diagnosed diabetes. The prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes was higher, but not significantly so, by HbA1c (4.9%, 95% CI 3.5, 6.8) vs FPG (3.5%, 2.4, 5.1). Overall 79 individuals had diabetes by either measure, but only 21 on both. The prevalence of prediabetes was higher by HbA1c compared to FPG: 41.7% (37.9, 45.6) vs 15.0% (12.8, 17.5). Overall 558 individuals had prediabetes by either measure, but only 107 on both. HbA1c, but not FPG, was significantly higher in women than men; and FPG, but not HbA1c, was significantly associated with raised triglycerides and low HDL cholesterol. CONCLUSION: The agreement between FPG and HbA1c defined hyperglycaemia is poor. In addition, there are some differences in the phenotype of those identified, and HbA1c gives a much higher prevalence of prediabetes. The routine use of HbA1c for screening and diagnosis in this population would have major implications for clinical and public health policies and resources. Given the lack of robust evidence, particularly for prediabetes, on whether intervention in the individuals identified would improve outcomes, this approach to screening and diagnosis cannot be currently recommended for this population.

Monitoring Caribbean tobacco use: baseline adolescent smoking prevalence and regional disparities.

OBJECTIVE:: To provide baseline information on tobacco use among adolescents in the Caribbean for the period before country-level implementation of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO-FCTC). MATERIALS AND METHODS:: Using Global Youth Tobacco Surveys (GYTS) between 2000 and 2008, we report baseline prevalence, 5-year change, and disparities in tobacco use (ever smoked, currently smoke) among adolescents. RESULTS:: The Caribbean prevalence of ever-smoked fell from 33.3 to 29.0% with nine of 14 countries reporting a 5-year decrease, and the prevalence of current smokers fell from 12.1 to 11.7% with eight of 14 countries reporting a 5-year decrease. Between-country disparities in the prevalence of ever smoked decreased, while between-country disparities in currently smoked saw little change. CONCLUSIONS:: This regional summary of tobacco use provides baseline estimates of adolescent smoking, and cross-country smoking disparities for the period before MPOWER implementation. Subsequent GYTS survey rounds can be used to monitor program success.

Monitoring Caribbean tobacco use: baseline adolescent smoking prevalence and regional disparities / Monitoreo del consumo de tabaco en el Caribe: línea de base de la prevalencia del consumo de tabaco en adolescentes y disparidades regionales

Abstract: Objective: To provide baseline information on tobacco use among adolescents in the Caribbean for the period before country-level implementation of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO-FCTC). Materials and methods: Using Global Youth Tobacco Surveys (GYTS) between 2000 and 2008, we report baseline prevalence, 5-year change, and disparities in tobacco use (ever smoked, currently smoke) among adolescents. Results: The Caribbean prevalence of ever-smoked fell from 33.3 to 29.0% with nine of 14 countries reporting a 5-year decrease, and the prevalence of current smokers fell from 12.1 to 11.7% with eight of 14 countries reporting a 5-year decrease. Between-country disparities in the prevalence of ever smoked decreased, while between-country disparities in currently smoked saw little change. Conclusions: This regional summary of tobacco use provides baseline estimates of adolescent smoking, and cross-country smoking disparities for the period before MPOWER implementation. Subsequent GYTS survey rounds can be used to monitor program success.

Resumen: Objetivo: Proveer un punto base de referencia sobre el uso de tabaco entre adolescentes de los países del Caribe antes de la implementación a nivel nacional del Convenio Marco para el Control de Tabaco (CMCT OMS). Material y métodos: Mediante la utilización de datos procedentes de la Encuesta Mundial de Tabaquismo en Jóvenes (EMTJ), obtenidos entre los años 2000 y 2008, se presenta la prevalencia del consumo de tabaco, el cambio obtenido en cinco años y las disparidades sobre el uso del tabaco entre los adolescentes (probaron el tabaco, fumadores actuales). Resultados: En el Caribe, la prevalencia de personas que han fumado en algún momento disminuyó de 33.3 a 29.0% y en nueve de 14 países se reportó un descenso en los últimos cinco años. Por otro lado, hubo un descenso en la prevalencia de fumadores actuales de 12.1 a 11.7% y en ocho de 14 países reportaron una disminución del consumo actual de tabaco fumado en los últimos cinco años. Las diferencias entre países en la prevalencia de los adolescentes que probaron tabaco en algún momento disminuyeron, sin embargo, hubo pocos cambios en la prevalencia de fumadores actuales. Conclusión: Este resumen regional sobre el consumo de tabaco proporciona unas estimaciones de referencia sobre el consumo de tabaco en adolescentes, así como sobre las diferencias entre los diferentes países en el periodo de tiempo anterior a la implementación del MPOWER. La implementación de nuevas rondas de la EMTJ se podrá utilizar para monitorear el éxito de la aplicación del paquete MPOWER.

A cross-sectional study of physical activity and sedentary behaviours in a Caribbean population: combining objective and questionnaire data to guide future interventions.

BACKGROUND: Current understanding of population physical activity (PA) levels and sedentary behaviour in developing countries is limited, and based primarily on self-report. We described PA levels using objective and self-report methods in a developing country population. METHODS: PA was assessed in a cross-sectional, representative sample of the population of Barbados (25-54 years), using a validated questionnaire (RPAQ) and individually calibrated combined heart rate and movement sensing monitors. The RPAQ collects information on recalled activity in 4 domains: home, work, transport, and leisure. Physical inactivity was defined according to World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines; sedentary lifestyle was defined as being sedentary for 8 h or more daily; PA overestimation was defined as perceiving activity to be sufficient, when classified as 'inactive' by objective measurement. RESULTS: According to objective estimates, 90.5 % (95 % CI: 83.3,94.7) of women and 58.9 % (48.4,68.7) of men did not accumulate sufficient activity to meet WHO minimum recommendations. Overall, 50.7 % (43.3,58.1) of the population was sedentary for 8 h or more each day, and 60.1 % (52.8,66.9) overestimated their activity levels. The prevalence of inactivity was underestimated by self-report in both genders by 28 percentage points (95 % CI: 18,38), but the accuracy of reporting differed by age group, education level, occupational grade, and overweight/obesity status. Low PA was greater in more socially privileged groups: higher educational level and higher occupational grade were both associated with less objectively measured PA and more sedentary time. Variation in domain-specific self-reported physical activity energy expenditure (PAEE) by educational attainment was observed: higher education level was associated with more leisure activity and less occupational activity. Occupational PA was the main driver of PAEE for women and men according to self-report, contributing 57 % (95 % CI: 52,61). The most popular leisure activities for both genders were walking and gardening. CONCLUSIONS: The use of both objective and self-report methods to assess PA and sedentary behaviour provides important complementary information to guide public health programmes. Our results emphasize the urgent need to increase PA and reduce sedentary time in this developing country population. Women and those with higher social economic position are particularly at risk from low levels of physical activity.

Establishing national noncommunicable disease surveillance in a developing country: a model for small island nations.

Objective To describe the surveillance model used to develop the first national, population-based, multiple noncommunicable disease (NCD) registry in the Caribbean (one of the first of its kind worldwide); registry implementation; lessons learned; and incidence and mortality rates from the first years of operation. Methods Driven by limited national resources, this initiative of the Barbados Ministry of Health (MoH), in collaboration with The University of the West Indies, was designed to collect prospective data on incident stroke and acute myocardial infarction (MI) (heart attack) cases from all health care facilities in this small island developing state (SIDS) in the Eastern Caribbean. Emphasis is on tertiary and emergency health care data sources. Incident cancer cases are obtained retrospectively, primarily from laboratories. Deaths are collected from the national death register. Results Phased introduction of the Barbados National Registry for Chronic NCDs ("the BNR") began with the stroke component ("BNR-Stroke," 2008), followed by the acute MI component ("BNR-Heart," 2009) and the cancer component ("BNR-Cancer," 2010). Expected case numbers projected from prior studies estimated an average of 378 first-ever stroke, 900 stroke, and 372 acute MI patients annually, and registry data showed an annual average of about 238, 593, and 349 patients respectively. There were 1 204 tumors registered in 2008, versus the expected 1 395. Registry data were used to identify public health training themes. Success required building support from local health care professionals and creating island-wide registry awareness. With spending of approximately US$ 148 per event for 2 200 events per year, the program costs the MoH about US$ 1 per capita annually. Conclusions Given the limited absolute health resources available to SIDS, combined surveillance should be considered for building a national NCD evidence base. With prevalence expected to increase further worldwide, Barbados' experiences are offered as a "road map" for other limited-resource countries considering national NCD surveillance.

Establishing national noncommunicable disease surveillance in a developing country: a model for small island nations / Introducción de la vigilancia nacional de las enfermedades no transmisibles en un país en desarrollo: un modelo para las pequeñas naciones insulares

Objective. To describe the surveillance model used to develop the first national, populationbased, multiple noncommunicable disease (NCD) registry in the Caribbean (one of the first of its kind worldwide); registry implementation; lessons learned; and incidence and mortality rates from the first years of operation. Methods. Driven by limited national resources, this initiative of the Barbados Ministry of Health (MoH), in collaboration with The University of the West Indies, was designed to collect prospective data on incident stroke and acute myocardial infarction (MI) (heart attack) cases from all health care facilities in this small island developing state (SIDS) in the Eastern Caribbean. Emphasis is on tertiary and emergency health care data sources. Incident cancer cases are obtained retrospectively, primarily from laboratories. Deaths are collected from the national death register. Results. Phased introduction of the Barbados National Registry for Chronic NCDs (“the BNR”) began with the stroke component (“BNR–Stroke,” 2008), followed by the acute MI component (“BNR–Heart,” 2009) and the cancer component (“BNR–Cancer,” 2010). Expected case numbers projected from prior studies estimated an average of 378 first-ever stroke, 900 stroke, and 372 acute MI patients annually, and registry data showed an annual average of about 238, 593, and 349 patients respectively. There were 1 204 tumors registered in 2008, versus the expected 1 395. Registry data were used to identify public health training themes. Success required building support from local health care professionals and creating island-wide registry awareness. With spending of approximately US$ 148 per event for 2 200 events per year, the program costs the MoH about US$ 1 per capita annually. Conclusions. Given the limited absolute health resources available to SIDS, combined surveillance should be considered for building a national NCD evidence base. With prevalence expected to increase further worldwide, Barbados’ experiences are offered as a “road map” for other limitedresource countries considering national NCD surveillance.

Objetivo. Describir el modelo de vigilancia que se utilizó para crear el primer registro poblacional nacional de múltiples enfermedades no transmisibles en el Caribe (uno de los primeros registros de esta clase en el mundo), la ejecución del registro, las lecciones aprendidas y las tasas de incidencia y mortalidad desde sus primeros años de funcionamiento. Métodos. Esta iniciativa del Ministerio de Salud de Barbados, realizada en colaboración con la Universidad de las Indias Occidentales e impulsada por la limitación de los recursos nacionales, tuvo por finalidad recoger datos prospectivos sobre los casos nuevos de accidente cerebrovascular e infarto agudo de miocardio en todos los establecimientos de atención de salud de este pequeño estado insular en desarrollo del Caribe oriental. El análisis se centró en las fuentes de datos sobre la atención de salud terciaria y de urgencia. La información sobre los casos nuevos de cáncer se obtuvo de manera retrospectiva, principalmente de los laboratorios. Los datos sobre las defunciones se tomaron del registro nacional de mortalidad. Resultados. La introducción progresiva del Registro Nacional de Enfermedades Crónicas no Transmisibles de Barbados se inició con el componente de los accidentes cerebrovasculares en 2008, seguido del componente de infarto agudo de miocardio en 2009 y el componente de cáncer en 2010. Las estimaciones previstas con base en los estudios anteriores fueron en promedio de 378 casos de un primer accidente cerebrovascular, 900 casos de accidente cerebrovascular y 372 pacientes con infarto agudo de miocardio cada año; los datos del registro mostraron un promedio anual cercano a 238, 593 y 349 casos respectivamente. En el 2008, se registraron 1204 casos de cáncer, frente a los 1395 previstos. En función de los datos del registro se definieron los temas de capacitación en salud pública. El éxito de la iniciativa exigió fomentar el apoyo de los profesionales de salud a nivel local y dar a conocer la existencia del registro en toda la isla. Con un gasto cercano a 148 dólares por episodio y 2200 episodios por año, el programa cuesta al Ministerio de Salud alrededor de un dólar por habitante cada año. Conclusiones. Dada la limitación de los recursos absolutos destinados a la salud en los pequeños estados insulares en desarrollo, es preciso analizar la posibilidad de realizar una vigilancia combinada, con el objeto de crear una base nacional de datos fidedignos sobre las enfermedades no transmisibles. Ante la perspectiva de un aumento continuo de la prevalencia mundial, la experiencia en Barbados se ofrece como una “hoja de ruta” destinada a otros países con recursos limitado

Establishing national noncommunicable disease surveillance in a developing country: a model for small island nations / Introducción de la vigilancia nacional de las enfermedades no transmisibles en un país en desarrollo: un modelo para las pequeñas naciones insulares

ABSTRACT Objective To describe the surveillance model used to develop the first national, population-based, multiple noncommunicable disease (NCD) registry in the Caribbean (one of the first of its kind worldwide); registry implementation; lessons learned; and incidence and mortality rates from the first years of operation. Methods Driven by limited national resources, this initiative of the Barbados Ministry of Health (MoH), in collaboration with The University of the West Indies, was designed to collect prospective data on incident stroke and acute myocardial infarction (MI) (heart attack) cases from all health care facilities in this small island developing state (SIDS) in the Eastern Caribbean. Emphasis is on tertiary and emergency health care data sources. Incident cancer cases are obtained retrospectively, primarily from laboratories. Deaths are collected from the national death register. Results Phased introduction of the Barbados National Registry for Chronic NCDs (“the BNR”) began with the stroke component (“BNR–Stroke,” 2008), followed by the acute MI component (“BNR–Heart,” 2009) and the cancer component (“BNR–Cancer,” 2010). Expected case numbers projected from prior studies estimated an average of 378 first-ever stroke, 900 stroke, and 372 acute MI patients annually, and registry data showed an annual average of about 238, 593, and 349 patients respectively. There were 1 204 tumors registered in 2008, versus the expected 1 395. Registry data were used to identify public health training themes. Success required building support from local health care professionals and creating island-wide registry awareness. With spending of approximately US$ 148 per event for 2 200 events per year, the program costs the MoH about US$ 1 per capita annually. Conclusions Given the limited absolute health resources available to SIDS, combined surveillance should be considered for building a national NCD evidence base. With prevalence expected to increase further worldwide, Barbados’ experiences are offered as a “road map” for other limited-resource countries considering national NCD surveillance.

RESUMEN Objetivo Describir el modelo de vigilancia que se utilizó para crear el primer registro poblacional nacional de múltiples enfermedades no transmisibles en el Caribe (uno de los primeros registros de esta clase en el mundo), la ejecución del registro, las lecciones aprendidas y las tasas de incidencia y mortalidad desde sus primeros años de funcionamiento. Métodos Esta iniciativa del Ministerio de Salud de Barbados, realizada en colaboración con la Universidad de las Indias Occidentales e impulsada por la limitación de los recursos nacionales, tuvo por finalidad recoger datos prospectivos sobre los casos nuevos de accidente cerebrovascular e infarto agudo de miocardio en todos los establecimientos de atención de salud de este pequeño estado insular en desarrollo del Caribe oriental. El análisis se centró en las fuentes de datos sobre la atención de salud terciaria y de urgencia. La información sobre los casos nuevos de cáncer se obtuvo de manera retrospectiva, principalmente de los laboratorios. Los datos sobre las defunciones se tomaron del registro nacional de mortalidad. Resultados La introducción progresiva del Registro Nacional de Enfermedades Crónicas no Transmisibles de Barbados se inició con el componente de los accidentes cerebrovasculares en 2008, seguido del componente de infarto agudo de miocardio en 2009 y el componente de cáncer en 2010. Las estimaciones previstas con base en los estudios anteriores fueron en promedio de 378 casos de un primer accidente cerebrovascular, 900 casos de accidente cerebrovascular y 372 pacientes con infarto agudo de miocardio cada año; los datos del registro mostraron un promedio anual cercano a 238, 593 y 349 casos respectivamente. En el 2008, se registraron 1204 casos de cáncer, frente a los 1395 previstos. En función de los datos del registro se definieron los temas de capacitación en salud pública. El éxito de la iniciativa exigió fomentar el apoyo de los profesionales de salud a nivel local y dar a conocer la existencia del registro en toda la isla. Con un gasto cercano a 148 dólares por episodio y 2200 episodios por año, el programa cuesta al Ministerio de Salud alrededor de un dólar por habitante cada año. Conclusiones Dada la limitación de los recursos absolutos destinados a la salud en los pequeños estados insulares en desarrollo, es preciso analizar la posibilidad de realizar una vigilancia combinada, con el objeto de crear una base nacional de datos fidedignos sobre las enfermedades no transmisibles. Ante la perspectiva de un aumento continuo de la prevalencia mundial, la experiencia en Barbados se ofrece como una “hoja de ruta” destinada a otros países con recursos limitados que planean introducir la vigilancia nacional de las enfermedades no transmisibles.

Social distribution of diabetes, hypertension and related risk factors in Barbados: a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the distribution of diabetes, hypertension and related behavioural and biological risk factors in adults in Barbados by gender, education and occupation. DESIGN: Multistage probability sampling was used to select a representative sample of the adult population (≥ 25 years). Participants were interviewed using standard questionnaires, underwent anthropometric and blood pressure measurements, and provided fasting blood for glucose and cholesterol measurements. Standard WHO definitions were used. Data were weighted for sampling and non-response, and were age and sex standardised to the 2010 Barbados population. Weighted prevalence estimates were calculated, and prevalence ratios were calculated for behavioural and biological risk factors by demographic and socioeconomic group. RESULTS: Study response rate was 55.0%, with 764 women, 470 men. Prevalence of obesity was 33.8% (95% CI 30.7% to 37.1%); hypertension 40.6% (95% CI 36.5% to 44.9%); and diabetes 18.7% (95% CI 16.2% to 21.4%). Compared with women, men were less likely to be obese (prevalence ratio 0.5; 95% CI 0.4 to 0.7), or physically inactive (0.5; 0.4 to 0.6), but more likely to smoke tobacco (4.1; 2.5 to 6.7) and consume large amounts of alcohol in a single episode (4.6; 2.7 to 7.6). Both diabetes (0.83; 0.65 to 1.05) and hypertension (0.89; 0.79 to 1.02) were lower in men, but not significantly so. In women, higher educational level was related to higher fruit and vegetable intake, more physical activity, less diabetes and less hypercholesterolaemia (p 0.01-0.04). In men, higher education was related only to less smoking (p 0.04). Differences by occupation were limited to smoking in men and hypercholesterolaemia in women. CONCLUSIONS: In this developing country population, sex appears to be a much stronger determinant of behavioural risk factors, as well as obesity and its related risks, than education or occupation. These findings have implications for meeting the commitments made in the 2011 Rio Political Declaration, to eliminate health inequities.